-The term
psychology is derived from two Greek words:-"psyche" and
"logus". Which means soul and science respectively. Thus the literal
meaning of psychology is the science of the soul. In the larger sense,
psychology is a social science. It deals with cognitive activities like
perceiving, thinking, imagining and also emotional experiences. Psychology can
also be called as the science of behaviour and experience in relation to the environment.
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific
study of mental functions and behaviours and also to understand it.
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The domain
of psychology has in course of time emerged as one of the important disciplines
by widening his scope and being applicable to different fields of human endeavors
such as employment, industrial activities, education, and personality problem,
treatment of mental and educational problems. These are explained in brief:-
1) Organizational
-It is
also known as industrial psychology. It means to provide the way to improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of business organization while solving the organizational
problems.
2) Social
-It is
meant to help the people by solving their social problems. It is focused on the
role of society and how it can influence in the development of one's
personality.
3) Clinical
-It deals
with mental, emotional and abnormal behaviorist helps people to come out from
their mental disorder by psychotherapy.
4) Educational
-it deals
with how an individual learns through educational settings. It is concerned
with educational and teaching methodologies and processes.
OBSERVATIONAL METHOD OF PSYCHOLOGY
1) Naturalistic observation
-It is
named in an environment which is uncontrolled and unrestricted but natural and
unplanned.
e.g:-5 year old child returns home
from school with the hope to see a cartoon but when he switches on the TV with eagerness,
he found it blank. He shows anger by throwing things, shouting or rolling on
the floor.
2) Participant observation
-Here the
observer actually takes part with the person who is observed in a particular
act and observes his behavior.
e.g.:-A
representative of the management participants in the GD and also observes their
normal responses and actions.
3) Non-participant observation
-It is
opposite to participant observation. In this method, the observer does not
participate in the activities of the subject being studied but he tries to
observe the behavior from an observable distance or through one-way vision.
e.g.:-
adperson becoming anxious and shaking his legs, sweating profusely. Now this
can be observed by non-participating members in the process through some means.
**) QUALITATIVE
METHODS
A) Film-study method
-Investigator
goes to the actual environment with a set of questions and observes accordingly
to obtain clear understanding and spontaneous responses of the subject. The
investigator joins day to day life of the subject.
e.g:-govt.
census
b) Experimental method
-It is the
most highly developed, formalized and accurate of all scientific methods. Here
the observation is made under no natural conditions but artificially concluded
conditions in the lab. There all factors are kept constant; only one factor is
varied at a time to determine the effect of the variable on the scope of study.
e.g.:-experiment
on a guinea-pig on a lab
c) Survey method
-Here the
survey is made with selected sample which represents the will of the entire population;
social survey must be randomly selected. It is done by questionnaires,
interviews, rating scales etc.Nowadays it is extended to telephone circles and
mail questionnaires.
e.g.:-survey
after launching surf excels by the company about the product is responding in
the market.
D) Case-study method
-Studying
the case history or previous history of the subject by using different tests or
questionnaires. It is mainly borrowed from medical science.
ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION
This
branch of psychology is also known as organizational or occupational psychology.
Its application is to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of business
organisations.It seeks to identify leadership styles,organisational conflicts
and the psychological characteristics of the workplace.Not only it is concerned
with business development but also the effectiveness and efficiency in the
terms of employee's performance.Psychologist or the consultant of this branch
are in great demand as they contribute greatly to the total organisational
system and development.It also deals with employment of appropriate man power
in the industrial organization
BEHAVIOURISTIC
APPROACH OF PSYCHOLOGY
This
approach focuses on those aspects of behavior which can be directly observed
and has a lot of influence on the environment in shaping that
behaviours.Behaviourists minimise the role of organization and look for the
environmental factors that control behavior in this approach. John B.Watson was
the first American psychologist to introduce this approach. The behaviorist
optimistically believes that by controlling a person's environment, it is
possible to train him to show any kind of desirable behavior.
According
to behaviourism,in this approach behavior can be studied in a systematic and
observable manner.This approach has a lot of followers in modern psychology
because here emphasis on observable behavior continues till date.Behaviourists
have made significant contributions in the field of learning,educational
practises,treatment of mental disorders,controlling aggression and treating of
drug addiction by following this approach.
COGNITIVE APPROACH
-Cognition
means knowing or knowledge.Cognitive psychology is a sub-discipline of
psychology exploring internal and mental processes.It is the study of how
people perceive,remember,think and solve problems.In current days cognitive
model plays a very vital role because modern psychology wants to know hoe
people behave and to understand people.For this careful attention should be
given to cognitive processes.It suggests that people do not act mechanically to
an information received from the environment but they choose and takes
decisions among the various options available to them.Here the individuals'
thoughts and imaginations,his knowledge and ideas also play a vital role in
determining his behavior and response.
GESTALT SCHOOL OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Gestalt
school of psychology emerged in Germany.This school of psychology was founded
by Max Wertheimir and his colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfang Kohler.They mainly
did research in the area of perceptual and learning processes.The word
"gestalt" is originated from Germany which means "form".The
operational principle of the gestalt psychology is that human being by his
eyes,scenes,objects entirely before perceiving their individual
parts,suggesting that the whole is greater than some of the parts.Here the
psychologist uses this principle by following this concept that mind or behavior
must be studied in whole,not as elements or parts by following the cognitive
approach.The gestalt school focusses on the study of perception in an organised
way.It was of opinion that fundamental activities of the human mind functions a
whole as it combines different units into a meaningful one.Their approach to
the study of perception and learning is molar rather than molecular.They opined
that there is always organization in perception.The contributions of the
Gestaltists to the psychology of perception and learning are considered as
outstanding.
PSYCHOANALYTIC
SCHOOL(FREUD)
Sigmeund
Freud was a neurologist who developed it.He gave a new dimension to the concept
of unconscious mental processes by predicting its impact upon the development
of human personality and its significant role if mental abnormality.Freud's
outstanding conceptions contributed in developing a theory of psychological
disorders as a remedy to treating mentally abnormal people.Here the consultant
uses pre-association method where a person is asked to openly share all
thoughts,feelings and ideas that comes to one's mind.Dream analysis is also
used in this approach.
In this
approach,it divides personality into three structures.These structures are
inter-related and overlap each other in times.These are used as strong
psychological forces.
The
three structures are:-
1)Id
Id refers
to the pleasure principle and desires of a person.It is fully unconscious.Needs
and desires mostly immoral,unsocial and anti-social is the main concern of
Id.The main purpose of Id is to discharge tension.It is the energy to satisfy
basic urges,needs and demands.
2)Ego
It
develops out of Id.It works on reason and reality principle.It represents the
social demands and ideas.It tries to keep up balance between Id and super ego
by mediating the demand of the Id,the super-ego and reality.
3)Super-ego
It deals
with ideals and is regulated by conscience.It is a content of personality
composed of the ideals that we have accured from our parents and society.
SENSATION AND
ATTRIBUTE OF SENSATION
Sensation
referss to sensing our environment through taste,touch,sight,sound and
smell(the five senses).The organ,the receptor cells which brings us information
from our environment is called the sense organ.Sensation provides us
information about the external world.Without these sensations it would have
been very difficult to live in the world and adjust with surroundings.
The attributes of sensation are:-
1)Qualities
Different
sensations have different qualities.The sensation of taste differes from the
sensation off brightness and colour.Thus each sensation differs in quality from
another.Even there is a difference in the quality of the same sense.In visual
sensation there are red,yellow,blue which differs from each other.
2)Intensity
The
sensation of the same quality may differ in intensity.A sound may be loud or
moderate,a colour may be deep or pale.Keeping the other factors same,Greater
the intensity and stronger is the sensation.
3)Clarity
The
advertisement which is in the centre of the newspaper page is more clear than
which is in the fringe or ground.If it is more clear,it will effect the
sensation mode.
4)Duration
The
longer the duration of its stay,stronger is the sensation.With the difference
in duration,the sensation may also differ.An advertisement exposed for half
seconds have different effects upon one's sensory experiences.
5)Extension
The
sensation which is larger in area is different from a sensation which involves
a small area.A large advertisement or a huge bunch of flowers has different
sensatory effects than a smaller one
PERCEPTION
After
sensation comes perception.When meaning is added to sensation,it becomes
perception.Meaning can be added by past experiences and learning.Perception can
also be called a process of inforrmation,extraction and preparation for
response.But we do not perceive each and every sensation.We perceive which we
want to perceive while interacting with the environment.Our sensory receptor
organs are affected by number of stimuli,this is called sensation and when some
past experience,learning and meaning is added to it,it becomes perception.For
instance,suppose you see a big bird like object flying in the sky.This is
sensation,when you attend it and say that is an aeroplane,it becomes
perception.
ATTENTION
After
sensation when we make us ready for a perception or prepare ourselves to react
to the situation,before comes attention.Attention is featured by increased
clarity,bringing out the details or what is attended.It can also be said that
at a particular moment,it can be numerous stimuli from the environment exciting
our sensory cells,but we attend to a particular stimuli.It can also fluctuate
and shift from the moment to moment.Our attention may be due to our own will or
pressure or because of habit.
FEEDBACK
Communication
is not complete unless it is understood and response is the last step of
communication process.Every communication process should result in some kind of
message that is received,understood and interpreted correctly and acted
upon.This is feedback
Feedback
is a response by the receiver to the sender's message.Feedback provides a means
to evaluate the effectiveness to the message.Positive feedback informs that the
message was achieved.Negative feedback informs there is a lack of
communication.
Feedback
makes communications a two way process.The more "feedback oriented" a
communication process,the more effective it becomes.In a face to face
conversation,feedback is usuallu simple and immediate.In a non verbal
communication,feedback may be in the form of nodding of the head,avoiding eye
contact etc.
Sender
should know the impact of his message on the receiver.Therefore feedback has to
be built in the system of communication
DETERMINANTS OF
ATTENTION
There are two types of determinants of attention:-a
OBJECTIVE
OR EXTERNAL SUBJECTIVE
OR INTERNAL
1. Intensity 1.Organic
needs and motives
2. Size 2.Interest
3. Duration 3.Habit
4. Novelty 4.Attitudes
and moods
5. Repitition 5.Social
suggestion
6. Change 6.Distraction
and attention
7. Systematic form
8. Movement
9. Location
10. colour
11. contrast
12. prepotency
OBJECTIVE
DETERMINANTS
These
factors or determinants which lie in the stimulus are called the external or objective
determinants.These are qualities and features in the object of attentionFor
e.g. deep and bold colours draw our attention immediately.
1)Intensity
-The
more intense the stimulus,the more likely it is to be attended.The sound coming
from loud speakers,strong fragnance,bright colours draw our attention
immediately.On the other hand a soft whisper,low sound,pale colours,dim light
do not catch our attention.
2)Size
-Big
things always draw more attention than smaller ones.A big poster,a big elephant,a
full page ad draw more comparison in comparison to their smaller counterparts
3)Novelty
-Most
of us attend to anything that is novel-things which we are accustomed to,which
are relatively new to us,whether sound,smell or taste which instantly gets
noticed by us.For instance,strange animals,unused colours draw our attention
more than the conventional ones.
4)Repitition
-A
weak stimulus frequently repeated may be presented as a strong one than if
presented once.For instance,when we are studying and somebody gives a knock on
the door,we ovrlook it but if the knock is made repeatedly over and over
again,we will attend and open the door.But there is a limit to the
effectiveness of repitition.If it goes beyond the limit,it ceases to drop just like
diminishing returns.For e.g.:-the continuous and repeated ticking sound of the
clock kept on the study table kills attention,though it is infront of us.
5)Change
-A
change of variety in the physical characteristics of the stimulus is most
welcome in an area of attention more than reading and stereotype factors.For e.g.:-sound
of fan goes on continuously,does not draw our attention but the moment the
sound stops it revives our attention back at once.
6)Movement
-A
running ball,a moving hand,a moving picture on the TV gets more attention than
those objects which do not move and remain static.Moving of the object gives it
a new character which is absent in a object which does not move.
7)Location
-Keeping
other factors same,the thing which is kept infront of our eyes will draw our
attention directly.
8)Colour
-
9)Contrast
-
10)Prepotency
-
INTERNAL OR
SUBJECTIVE DETERMINANTS
-The
internal determinants of attention lie with the individual who attends,so these
are known as subjective conditions of attention.for e.g.:-a thirsty person will
prefer a glass of water over moutn-watering dishes..
1)Organic
needs and motives
-Here
biological needs of an individual plays a potent role.For instance,a person who
is tired,and needs sleep and rest will try to get a soft bed.A hungry person
will prefer food to anything else
2)Habit
-A
person who is interested in smoking will always be drawn to cigarettes,an
alcoholic to alcohol etc.It is also called habitual attention.A major portion
of our day to day attention is determined by habit
3)Interest
-Interest
is a powerful determinant of attention.Individual differences in attention to a
stimulus occur because of a person's interest,For eg:-a movie which doesn't
have the entertainment for a box office hit may be attended by the persons who
have interest of big film.
4)Attitude
and moods
-A
person who is worried or depressed will attend the small trivial annoyances
while one who is in a pleasant mood will attend to pleasant objects.
5)Social
suggestion
-People
attend to those objects which they are asked to attend.For instance:-it is said
that always obey your elders.We follow it even if they misguide us at times
LEARNING
-Learning
starts from the moment of birth and continues till death.Learning is an ability
that helps us to respond to different situations differently because of past
experiences.Due to this capacity to learn,our later behavior is modified by our
earlier behaviour.The do's and dont's of life's socialisation
process,development of language and values,knowledge regarding various aspects
of lie all come through learning.Learning is an outcome of the interaction of
the organs with the environment.It establishes new relationships between a
stimulus and a response.Learning also refers to the development of skills and
strategies to deal with various problems of life ,to adjust with dynamic
circunstances which surround the human organism.
1)Classical
conditioning
-refer
to pavlov's theory of conditioned reflex(the dog experiment)
2)Operand
conditioning
-It
was developed by B.F.Skinner in the year 1940.Its main concept is that operand
conditioning reward is contingent upon upon or depends upon a response.Here it
is contingent upon the response.Here B.F.Skinner made an experiment:-"bar
processing experiment to prove the theory of operand conditioning."Here
the environment of the operand chamber used in the bar processing experiment
was controlled by lights and sounds.A hungry rat was put inside the small small
compartment of a box.The box had a lever which was mechanically connected with
food.When the lever was pressed,an electrical device was releasing a pellet of
food into the food crate.The lever was corrected by a stylus to record each and
every movement of the lever.Gradually the rat learned to press the lever to get
reinforcements(food pellets).In this experiment,the lever was called
conditioned stimulus and pressing the level,the conditioned response or the
operand behaviour.Pressing the lever was the most important thing in the
experiment because it was operating the behavior and was bringing the
reinforcement.If the animal would fail to press the lever,the food would not
come.This is called operand conditioning.
GESTALT'S VIEW OF
LEARNING/INSIGHTFUL LEARNING
-Gestalt
developed a theory of whole position in learning and perception known as
"gestalt theory of learning"..The word "gestalt" is a
german word with no exact english translation.It more or less refers to
"form".It means objects and things are perceived as a whole,in
complete form.This is the main concept of gestalt's school.Her at first,a
stimulus is observed as a whole then it is analysed part by part.For eg:-when
we see a bird,we say it is beautiful,we don't perceive part by part of the bird
and then say that it is beautiful.We perceive as a whole and then come to the
part features like eyes,feather,colour,size etc.Some researches have shown that
higher animals like monkeys,chimps and adult human beings are able to bring the
correct solution to a problem in a single trial in a sudden flash.This is
called insightful learning.It mainly depends upon intelligence and
understanding of the learning.Here the situation should be perceived as a whole
instead of separating it into components or elements and learning part by
part.This is called "Gestalt view of learning or insightful
learning".
SILENCE IN
COMMUNICATION
-Silence
is often an effective medium of communication.There is an old proverb
:"Silence is more eloquent than words".."There are various
situations in which nothing can express one's response so effectively in
silence.
Silence
can effectively communicate a number of responses.Two strangers talk to each
other for a few moment and then sink in silence,i.e,there is a communication
gap between the two.
During a speech,a light pause before an
important point creates suspense.It raises a sense of anticipation and the
audience listens to the next point more attentively.Also,if the speaker uses a
slight pause,it indicates that something very important has been
said.Thus,effective speakers can evoke the iuntended response through silence.
ILLUSTRATIONS AND
GRAPHICAL VISUAL AID
-As a
form of visual amedia of communication,illustrations and graphical visual aid
is extremely useful in easy and speedy communication of information specially
through designs,models,maps,diagrams,chart,graphs,tables etc.
Graphical aids such as tables,charts are tools
for presentation of quantitative data more efficiently enabling the receiver to
compare and contrast data.A chart is a pictorial representation and depicts
non-numerical relationship and graph depicts quantitative
relationship.Graphical aids allow the communicator to present his data more
clearly and in a small space.
PROGRAMMED LEARNING
It is a
developed and redesigned modern day concept of learning which is also known as
programming the learning.By the use of modern technological teaching,machines
like computers,laptops,film projectors,tape recorders,digital cameras and even
through e-book.Here the teaching material is presented through a mechanical or
electronic device.In programmed learning,whatever may be the methodology or
gadgets used,the heart of the process is the program.They are more effective
compared to mere books as they help to provide quick reinforcement to the
learner either positive or negative.
THE PROCESS OF
PROGRAMMED LEARNING
The
process of programmed learning consistes of several steps in several modes of
programmed learning..In the process of programmed learning,the learner requires
to write down the answers to a question by pushing or clicking a button
indicating his choice among several alternative answers or to type his answer
in an electronic type writer..When such machines are used to impart learning he
gets immediate response whether the answer given by him is correct or wrong..In
case of a correct answer,the reinforcement may be excellent or good..In case of
a wrong answer,the response shall be apologetic..Here the machine automatically
gives the reward or punishment and the teacher has nothing to bother about
it..This is an instance of how the processs of programmed learning works..
PERSONALITY
The term
personality is derived from the Latin word "persona" which means a
theatrical mask used by actors to indicate their role in theatrical
play...People ordinarily think that personality means reputation or physical
attractiveness,overall charm of a person but this view is not totally
correct..Personality refers to the inner self of the person..So personality is
the totality of a man when both his inner and outer qualities interact with
each other..Personality of a person includes the external appearance,his
abilities,tendencies,innate and acquired..Personality can also be said as the
sum total of the impression that the individual manages to imprint on the other
person..
DETERMINANTS OF
PERSONALITY
There are
several features of personality which are described below:-
1) Personality is greatly influenced by social
interaction..
2) Personality refers to persistent qualities of an
individual..
3) Personality is unique.Every individual has his own
set of personality..
4) Personality is not given to us ready made at
birth,we have to accure it..
5) Personality remains as a whole,includes both inner
and outer qualities of a person..
BIG 5 MODEL OF
PSYCHOLOGY
It
means 5 basic dimensions/traits or range of personality..These ranges are
described below:-
1) Extraversion
-It
is a dimension ranging from energetic,enthusiastic,talkative,sober,reserve and
silent.
2) Agreeableness
-It
is a dimension ranging from good nature,cooperative,trusting and helpful at one
end to irritable,suspicious and uncooperative at other end..
3) Conscientiousness
-It
is a dimension ranging from well organised,careful,self-disciplined,responsible
and precise..At one end from disorganised,impulsive to carey nature at the
other end..
4) Emotional stability
-It
is a dimension ranging from poised,calm composed at one end to nervous,anxious
at the other end..
5) Openness to experience
-It
is a dimension ranging from imaginative,having broad interests at one end to
having no interest at the other end.
Personality
test
-It refers to the measurement
and evaluation of individual personalities by the help of tests.It is an area
which helps to select people for
different jobs by finding their interests realting to that respective job.It also helps to diagnosis of behavior
disorders of children and adults, measurement of anxiety, worry, depression
before starting an experiment on psychological process.Even nowdays couples show interest in the assessment of
each other personality before marriage.Assesment of personality somehow helps
to modify it.
Different types of tests used for personality test
-Psychometric tests
a) Case history
-it
is used to gather information about the persons home environment,relatives,
friends,parents,past illness,relation with parents,
siblings and
classmates,friends and teachers.
b) Paper pencil test
-it
is the traditional ,structured,easy way to administer,less time consuming and
less costly test to measure one’s personality.It includes questionnaires,self
report inventories etc
c) Rating scale
-used
with infants and adults to rate their behavior in a point scale by their
teachers,friends,supervisors about their impression regarding that person in a
rating scale like absent,slightly absent,average,marked,very marked ,extreme or
in a 5 or 7 point scale.
d) Behaviour test
-To
test one behaviour by some test which includes personality traits like honesty
leadership etc by assessing his personality by creating a situation where his
certain personality traits can be assessed.
e) Interview
-
it is a face to conversation between the interviewer and interviewee on some
specific problems where certain aspects of personality which cannot be assessed
objectively by questionnaire ,technique or rating scale.
Projective
techniques
a)Rorschach test
-
it is a widely used and oldest projective techniques.
Its main use is to detect underlying thought disorder,
especially in cases where patients are reluctant to describe their thinking
processes openly. There are ten official inkblots, each printed on a separate
white paper, each of the blots has near perfect symmetry. Five inkblots are of black ink, two
are of black and red ink and three are multicolored, on a white background.
Then the presenter asks the test subject to say what he originally sees,
analysis of responses is recorded by the test administrator using tabulation
and a separate location chart.
b) Rosenzweig picture frustration test
-
The Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study is usually considered a
semi-projective technique in it each of the three forms (child, adolescent, and
adult) consists of 24 comic strip pictures that portray a situation that might
induce frustration. The overall purpose of the study is to assess how the
examinee responds to frustration and frustrating situations. The test assumes
that the way that the examinee responds to each frustrating situation depicts
how they behave in the face of frustration.
- The TAT is popularly known as the picture interpretation
technique because it uses a series of provocative yet ambiguous
pictures(
20pics) about which the subject is asked to tell a story.
. Some of the cards show male figures, some female, some both male and female
figures, some of ambiguous gender, some adults, some children, and some show no
human figures at all. One card is completely blank and is used to elicit both a
scene and a story about the given scene from the storyteller. Although the
cards were originally designed to be matched to the subject in terms of age and
gender, any card may be used with any subject. The subject is asked to tell as
dramatic a story as they can for each picture presented before him.
d) kahn test of personality arrangement
- It involves projection of personal needs into symbols which have
meaning in all cultures such as dogs ,cats, stars, sky etc. Here the subject is
instructed to say what these symbols mean to him and arrange them according to
different sets of directions.This test measures traits like creativeness and
estimates loss of function arising out
of emotional and organic stress.
e) word association test
-
In WAT the subject is instructed to respond with the first word that comes into
his mind after hearing the stimulus word without any resistance or apparent
relevance to the response word.It helps to do clinical diagnosis
differentiating a normal from psychic, determination of areas of complexes and
detection of guilt.
EMOTION
Define emotion
-The
word "emotion" was adapted
from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up" It
means[A
mental state that arises spontaneously rather than through conscious effort and
is often accompanied by physiological changes; a feeling: the emotions of joy, sorrow, reverence, hate, and love.It
can be also said a conscious mental reaction subjectively experienced as strong feeling
usually directed toward a specific object and typically accompanied by
physiological and behavioral changes in the body.Emotions also play a vital
part in our motivational patterns.Life
without emotions would be virtually a life without motion.
Q) Explain the physiological basis of emotion?
-Emotions play an important role in the life
of human beings. Person experiences various emotions during waking hours. There
is a strong physiological basis for each emotion experiences for example an
individual may be anxious about grade in academic level, may get real
satisfaction when his instructor praises him in class with excellent remark,
may get terrorised when he received blank calls repeatedly and someone
threatens him, may feel pain due to psychological pressure of studies and many
more.
Mostly common emotions which a normal person
experiences in his daily life include fear, aggression, joy, envy, pleasure,
distress, grief, sadness, elation, excitement, surprise, guilt, interest
etc.These emotions are associated with strong physiological reactions.
Physiological component may be internal and expressive body changes. Different
kind of emotions differs in physiological reactions from each other. . For
instance, if we consider fear and anger, they have many bodily changes common
that are due to increased activity in the sympathetic nervous system. In both
Fear, and anger, the heart rate usually increased. When we felt afraid, it is
difficult for us to breath. Frequency of anger leads to high blood pressure
many times. During the course of aggression, sometimes blood vessels in the
muscles dilated so body is more prepared for action. Muscles tension and breathing
rate increase in fear and anger every time. But increase in muscle tension
occurs usually greater in anger than fear. In the same way, rise in blood
pressure was generally higher in anger than fear. While breathing rate were
increases more in fear than anger. It has been shows faster heart rate in joy,
anxious, sadness and shame.These are the physiological basis of emotion.
Memory
Define forgetting
-Forgetting(retention
loss) refers to the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in
an individual's long term memory.It is a spontaneous or gradual proces in which
old memories can't be recalled from memory storage.Here memory memory
performance is usually related to the active functioning of three stages.These
stages are encoding,storage and retrieval.Many different factors influence the
acctual process of forgetting like retrieval failure,interference,failure to
store etc.Forgetting can be reduced by repeation or more elaborate cognitive
process of information or use of mnemonics.Emotional state is one of the main
factors that have been found to effect this process of forgetting a lot.As a
result this severe case may be described as amnesia..
Causes of
forgetting
-Memory
researcher Elizabeth Loftus has identified $ major regions for forgetting.They
are:-
a)Retrieval failure
-It is
also known as the "decay theory".According to this theory,a memory is
created everytime when a new theory is formed.Decay theory suggests that
overtime this memory trace begins to fade and disappear if the information is
not retrieved and rehearsed and one day it will eventually be lost.
b)Interference
-Interference
theory suggests that some memories compete and interfere with the other
memories.When any information is very similar to other,information previously
stored in a memory gets deleted.Thus interference is likely to occur.
c)Motivated
forgetting
-Sometimes
we may actively work to forget memories specially those of traumatic or
disturbing events or experiences.The two basic forms of motivated forgetting
are suppression and repression.
d)Failure to store
-Sometimes
losing information has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact
that it is never converted into the long term memory in the first
place.Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from entering the long
term memory.
Interference theory
of forgetting
-In the
Interference theory of forgetting we forget something because other information
learnt interferes with our ability to recall.There are 2 types of interference:-
1)Proactive
interference
-Proactive
interference occurs when something that we previously learnt interferes with
remembering new information.For e.g.:-A person who studied psychology last term
and is currently taking a course that is very much similar to the one learnt
earlier will find it difficult to learn and remember the information in the
course currently taken.This may be due to the interference of similar
information.
2)Retroactive
interference
-It
occurs when new information learnt interferes with remembering previously
learnt information.For eg:-One might have difficulty remembering what happened
at a business meeting over a month ago more than information leaarnt in a more
current meeting.
WORKING MEMORY/STM
-STM is
also known as primary or active or working memory.It is the information that we
are currently aware of or are thinking about.Information comes from paying
attention to sensory memories.For eg:-someone tells his name or phone number to
a person.Most of the information kept in STM will be stored for approximately
20-30 seconds by rehearsal or by active maintenance (to note down) of the
information,the limited capacity of STM can be increased.While many of our STM
are quickly forwarded but by attending the information allows him to continue
to the next stage-Long term Memory.STM or working memory refers to the process
that are used to temporarily store,organise and manipulate information.
LONG TERM
MEMORY/LTM
-It
refers to the continued storage of information.Here the information is fairly
easy to recall.Through the process of active maintenance and rehearssal,the
content of the STM can become LTM.LTM can last for a matter of days to as long
as decades.Long term memory is usually subdivided into 2 parts-Declarative or
Procedural memory.
Declarative:- Declarative memory includes episodic
(specific events) and semantic memory ( knowledge about words)
Procedural:- Involves memories of body movement and
how to use objects in the environment.For eg:-how to drive a car or use a computer
are examples of procedural memories.
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